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GPT-style tokenizers use Byte Pair Encoding: start from single characters and repeatedly merge the most common pair of neighbors into a new symbol.
- Split every word in
wordsinto characters. Repeated words count multiple times. - Count every pair of adjacent symbols across all words.
- Pick the most frequent pair. If pairs tie, pick the one that is smallest when you compare (first symbol, second symbol) as strings.
- Replace every occurrence of that pair, left to right, with the merged symbol, and record the merged symbol.
- Repeat
num_mergestimes, or stop early when no word has two symbols left.
Implement bpe_merges(words, num_merges).
Input
words: The training words (lowercase letters).
num_merges: How many merges to learn.
Output
Return the merged symbols in the order they were learned.
Constraints
1 ≤ number of words ≤ 1,000, 1 ≤ length of each word ≤ 30
0 ≤ num_merges ≤ 200
Examples
Example 1
Input:
words = ["low", "lower", "lowest"]
num_merges = 2
Expected output:
["lo", "low"]
Explanation
Pairs: "l o" and "o w" appear 3 times each; the tie goes to "l o" ("l" < "o"), giving "lo". Now "lo w" appears 3 times, giving "low". Result: ["lo", "low"].
Example 2
Input:
words = ["aaa"]
num_merges = 3
Expected output:
["aa", "aaa"]
Explanation
"aaa" has the pair "a a" twice. Merging left to right gives "aa" + "a". Then "aa a" merges into "aaa", and the word is a single symbol, so the third merge has nothing to do. Result: ["aa", "aaa"].
References
-
Example 1 Not runInput:
words = ["low", "lower", "lowest"] num_merges = 2Expected output:["lo", "low"]Your output -
Example 2 Not runInput:
words = ["aaa"] num_merges = 3Expected output:["aa", "aaa"]Your output
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💡 Node.js Basics Guide for Beginners
1. Declaring Variables and Constants
Use let or const for block-scoped variables. const is used for constants.
let x = 10;
const PI = 3.14;
let name = "Alice";
let isActive = true;
2. Conditionals (if / switch)
Use if, else if, else or switch for control flow.
let x = 2;
if (x === 1) {
console.log("One");
} else if (x === 2) {
console.log("Two");
} else {
console.log("Other");
}
switch (x) {
case 1:
console.log("One");
break;
case 2:
console.log("Two");
break;
default:
console.log("Other");
}
3. Loops
Use for, while, and forEach to iterate over data.
for (let i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
console.log(i);
}
let n = 3;
while (n > 0) {
console.log(n);
n--;
}
4. Arrays
Use arrays to store ordered lists of values. Access them with indexes.
let fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"];
console.log(fruits[0]);
console.log(fruits.length);
5. Array Manipulation
Use methods like push, pop, slice, and reverse.
fruits.push("kiwi");
fruits.pop();
console.log(fruits.slice(0, 2));
console.log(fruits.reverse());
let squares = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].map(x => x * x);
console.log(squares);
6. Console Input/Output
Use console.log for output and readline module for input.
const readline = require('readline');
const rl = readline.createInterface({
input: process.stdin,
output: process.stdout
});
rl.question("What's your name? ", name => {
console.log(`Hello, ${name}`);
rl.close();
});
7. Functions
Functions can be declared or expressed. Arrow functions are often used in modern JavaScript.
function greet(name) {
return `Hello, ${name}`;
}
const add = (a, b) => a + b;
console.log(greet("Alice"));
console.log(add(2, 3));
8. Objects (Maps)
Objects store key-value pairs. They are similar to dictionaries or maps.
let person = { name: "Bob", age: 25 };
console.log(person.name);
console.log(person["age"]);
// ES6 Map
const map = new Map();
map.set("a", 1);
console.log(map.get("a"));
9. Exception Handling
Use try, catch, and finally to handle errors safely.
try {
throw new Error("Something went wrong");
} catch (e) {
console.log(e.message);
} finally {
console.log("Cleanup if needed");
}
10. File I/O
Use Node.js's fs module to read and write files.
const fs = require("fs");
fs.writeFileSync("test.txt", "Hello File");
const data = fs.readFileSync("test.txt", "utf8");
console.log(data);
11. String Manipulation
Use methods like trim(), toUpperCase(), replace(), and split().
let text = " Hello World ";
console.log(text.trim());
console.log(text.toUpperCase());
console.log(text.replace("Hello", "Hi"));
console.log(text.split(" "));
12. Classes & Objects
ES6+ supports OOP with class syntax.
class Person {
constructor(name) {
this.name = name;
}
greet() {
return `Hi, I'm ${this.name}`;
}
}
const p = new Person("Alice");
console.log(p.greet());
13. References
Objects and arrays in JavaScript are passed by reference.
function update(arr) {
arr.push("changed");
}
let data = ["original"];
update(data);
console.log(data); // ["original", "changed"]